10-26-2010, 12:15 PM
This post is in progress, but here a glimpse into the organization behind the great works of Hindu architects and master mason's.
The Hindu architects to masons are connected into a well-organized body of guilds. There are regional varieties.
In ancient times, there was intimate contacts between the SthApaka-Sthapati-SUtragrAhin-Shilpin.
A. KAraka: YajamAna = RAjA (patron)
B. . KartA: supreme SthApaka = RSHi (court counseller)
VASTU (divine design)
Ia. Sthapati = supervising designer-architect (ShiSHya)
b. SUtragrAhin = master mason-measurer, engineer (ShiSHyaputra) => mason's marks
SHILPA (art of shapes)
II 1. Vardhaki = master stone dresser-joiner
2. TakSHaka = master sculptor (stone cutter-carpenter)
CHITRA (craft of colourful ornamentation)
III. Vishvakarma Shilpa-ShreNi = Vishvakarma craftsmen guilds
i. mAlAkAra (garland maker, gardener), ii. KarmakAra (blacksmith), iii. ShankhakAra (conch shell carver), iv. Kuvindaka (weaver), v. kumbhakAra (potter, dome-builder?), vi. KAMsyakAra (metal worker), vii. SutradhAra (carpenter, leading shrenika), viii. chitrakAra (painter) and ix. SvarNakAra (goldsmith). See: Brahmavaivarta Purana I.x.20-23f. There are 5 primary and 5 secondary Vishvakarma craftsmen guilds.
a. major: 1. karmakAra, 2. kAMsyakAra, 3. svarNakAra, 4. sUtradhara (5. shilpin = stone carvers)
b. minor: 6. mAlAkAra, 7. shankhakAra, 8. kuvindaka, 9. kumbhakAra and 10. chitrakAra
IV. JirNoddhAraNa Shilpa-shreNi (team of repairers)
In the (second half of the) first millennium the role of Sthapati and SUtragrAhin was put in the function of the SUtradhAra.
The mason's engraved signs of their guilds and their personal names on the sones, etc. of the buildings. This tradition is a continuing one from at least the Gupta time to the 17th century, thus covering also the major Mughal period.
Taj Mahal mason marks
A Times of India (Hindi edition, New Delhi), report of 12 july 2004 refers to Archaeological Survey of India classifying mansons' marks of the Taj in three categories, namely, masons' marks alone, masons' marks in combination with names of masons and names of masons alone.
The report speaks of 671 marks found on the 300 meter long enclosing wall of the Taj. Fifty-three names of masons are also found engraved on the wall.
The 288 occurrences attached to 53 names in Nagari, with the overall majority of Hindu names, compared to only 20 in Persian script, underlines that the Taj edifice was heavily in the able hands of tradition Hindu mason guilds (the Muslims in Nagari, may have been newly converted masons, still feeling attached to their ancient Hindu art). And that still upto the 17th century. The masons' marks are to be found amongst older mason works well into Rajput period and before.
That there are only 20 engravings in Persian, indicates the overall role of Indians, the Sthapati-Sutradhara-Shilpi teamwork according to their Shastras in the construction of the edifice. This stresses also that the edifice must have been the ââ¬Åpalace of Raja Mansinghââ¬Â, as mentioned in the Padishahnamas and the royal Farman of Shahjahan, turned into a tomb with minor cosmetic changes (idols and human images removed, added with Persian and Arabic engravings).
Ancient Indian tradition
The ShukranIti (2nd century BC) refers thrice to artisans' distinguishing marks (cihna, lakSHaNa, anka) in prescribing their use to identify artisans and their occupations. The work summarizes a cenuries old and well-developed tradition from the Indus age well into his time.
There are two different classes of engravings:
a. missives (directional or location codes engraved for assembling a building)
b. marks (masons' codes of the different guilds involved in the building)
The marks fall in the following broad groups:
1. flora: flower, garland
2. fauna (animal, human): fish, scorpion, bird, frog, snake, human (single, double)
3. geometrical forms: circles (with a dot, a cross, three vertical lines, a flower, with a loop, or line, etc.), triangles, squares, hexagons or stars, parallellograms and variations.
4. weapons: mace, axe, trident, elephant's goad, bow and arrow, double-edged object, lance-head, arrow heads, arrow heads with a leaf.
5. instruments: weighing balance, damaru.
6. ornamental: lattice.
7. auspicious: fish, conch, svastika, mithuna, cross, flag, cart and wheel, river, hill with a cross or loop and armlet.
8. letters or names: Brahmi
9. numbers
Periods
upto 6th century
In progress....
6th to 13th century
First are the Brahmi marks, then the geometrical ones. Fauna occurs numerously, Flora is yet relatively rare. Weapons and instruments occur also freely.
Geometrical figures, like star and circle, besides fish, goad, arrow head, axe, lattice, svastika, cross and damaru are amongst the most frequent marks.
13th to 17th century
Geometrical figures, like star and circle, besides fish, goad, arrow head, axe, lattice, svastika, cross and damaru are still amongst the most frequent marks.
A few new marks appear in this period, which seems to be evolved out of the earlier ones (circle with loops), sometimes indicating a fusion with another group (svastika with a cross): Signs with loops, like knotted loops, a looped pentagon and a circle with four loops (Agra). But also a svastika with a cross and a circle divided by an -s- inside.
Floral designs are now very frequent, human ones are rare.
This indicates a continuous and consistent indigenous masonry tradition, dealing with complex Hindu structures and simplex Muslim ones, whether religious or secular. The last is nothing more than basically constructing their own traditional secular, domed buildings with towers, with a few new ideas (like qibla niche instead of the ghana niche, iwan instead of mahadvara), adapted to the taste of the Sultans. Most buildings occupied by the Muslims were already constructed by the traditional masons for the Hindus. It had to repaired and adapted to Muslim taste after their destructive drifts towards Hindu edifices.
The mason's marks of the Taj Mahal are discovered on the riverside wall. I have found a link on the web which has information on this. Below is the information, slightly rearranged by me.
http://savebharatmatagroup.blogspot.com/...hnama.html
The riverside wall of Taj Mahal is built of red sandstone and 300m in length and 9.67m in height. Lower part of the wall is plain with veneering of red sandstone slabs, whereas upper part of the wall is adirned with arched panels. The panels are carved with beautiful flowerpot and floral motifs in high relief. The frames of these arches inlayed with marble and upper corner of the panels are embellished with projecting marble lotus medallions. The wall is pierced with two doorways at the eastern and western end towards river.
The plain slabs of the lower sidewall are engraved on the wall viz. mason marks, mason names and composition of both. Mason names are in profusion followed by mason marks and composition of both respectively.
I. Mason marks types
There are some 14 different types:
1. svastika, 2. star, 3. hook like mark, 4a. triangle, b. intersecting triangles, 5. trident, 6a. Fish,
b. three conjoined fish, 7. damaru, 8 flower, 9. circle with s-shaped letter inside, 10. four square, 11. good, 12. arrow head, 13. axe, 14. geometrical flower, etc.
Arranged in the order of frequency: svastika, star, hook like mark, triangle, damaru, flower, intersecting triangles, trident, three conjoined fish, circle with s-shaped letter inside, four square, fish, good, arrow head, axe, geometrical flower etc.
The mason names are mostly written in Nagari character, but there are also some names and/or marks in Persian.
II. Mason names (53 in Nagari)
These are prefixed/suffixed/based/topped with variety of marks like star, svastika, axe etc. Some of the marks are in negative from which may have been taken by impression of it in positive form. Some of the mason names or composition of name with mark are as follows (number of frequency is written in bracket):
A. Nagari ââ¬â 1. Magha (22), 2. Gaga (21), 3. Ramayada (19), 4. Pahuratha (16), 5. Sabala (14), 6. Haridasa (13), 7. Hamhara (12), 8. Bhagavan (11), 9. Ramadasa (10), 10. Nathu (9),
11. Parorama (8), 12. Kasi (8), 13. Mohananvatha (7), 14. Lapra (7), 15. Hara (7), 16. Nagha (5), 17. Satra (5), 18. Kesenavesko (5), 19. Hani (4), 20. Ghanamahasa (4), 21. Ghanamala (4),
22. Hira (4), 23. Mahala (4), 24. Mahan (4), 25. Jahanhalavala (3), 26. Bhagavan (3),
27. Namayavi (3), 28. Nanaghana (3), 29. Kalanu (3), 30. Nahana (3), 31. Bhaga-(3), 32. Jamal (2), 33. Manara (2), 34. Penokomopalu (2), 35. Pagaga (2), 36. Nathanvatha (2), 37. Makalapa (2), 38. Hanu (2), 39. Shamada (2), 40. Nakhanltagari (2), 41. Pala (2), 42. Kamaphala (2),
43. Nathahalavala (2), 44. Ramari (2), 45. Mapahala (2), 46. Kasama-(2) 47. Panamadamah(2), 48. Alama (2), 49. Jaghavalahalu (2), 50. Kalama (2), 51. Bhavara (2), 52. Rovo (2), and last
53. Mohana (2).
SUBTOTAL 275 with Hindu identity and 13 seemingly Muslim in the lower frequency => TOTAL 288
B. Persian - name/numerals in Persian (20)
Total of 20 with a Muslim identity.
III. Detailed survey of the mason marks
There are more than 14 different types which are arranged in the order of frequency:
1. svastika
Svastika mark,
Mason name suffixed with Svastika like mark,
Cross like mark,
2. star
Four pronged star mark,
Five pronged star mark,
Illegible mason name prefixed with five pronged star mark,
Five pronged star mark with illegible mason name,
Six pronged star Mark,
Illegible mason name suffixed with star mark
Mason name suffixed with star mark,
Mason name prefixed with Swastik like mark,
Mason name and star mark,
Mason name prefixed with star mark,
Mason name topped with star mark,
Partial Illeggible six lettered mason name with a star mark at the starting of the base,
3. triangle
a. triangle
Triangular marks,
b. intersecting triangles
Composite Triangular mark,
4. trident
Mason name prefixed with trident like mark,
Trident mark,
Mason name prefixed with trident mark. With the help of impression of the name in positive form,
Mason name with trident like mark perpendicular to the name at the end,
5. Fish
three conjoined fish
Three conjoined fish mark,
6. damaru
Drum like mark,
Damaru like mark,
7. flower
a. Flower like mark with four petals,
b. geometrical flower
8. ball with s-shaped letter inside
a. Ball like mark with shaped mark inside,
b. hook like mark inside
Mason name suffixed with inverted s-shaped mark,
9. four square
Four square mark,
10. good
Good mark,
11. arrow
Mason name with two arrow marks facing each other in between,
12. axe
Mason name prefixed with axe mark,
Mason Mark like blade of battle-axe,
Mason name prefixed with axe mark written with the help of impression in positive,
13. winepot
Mason name with wine-pot like mark at the bottom,
14. miscell.
Mason name,
Name with a mark at the center base,
Mason name with a mark at the center base,
Mason name with mark at the center of the base,
Some letters are illegible,
Mason name, last four letters are illegible
Illegible two letters of Mason name,
Illegible two letters,
Mark,
Name topped with mark,
Mason name suffixed with a mark,
Name suffixed with a mark,
Numeral,
Un-deciphered mason like,
Mason name with Ra letter at the top,
Three mason names at a place,
Digit in Persian? Suffixed with Mason name,
Mason name in Persian with date and some legend
.....to be continued
The Hindu architects to masons are connected into a well-organized body of guilds. There are regional varieties.
In ancient times, there was intimate contacts between the SthApaka-Sthapati-SUtragrAhin-Shilpin.
A. KAraka: YajamAna = RAjA (patron)
B. . KartA: supreme SthApaka = RSHi (court counseller)
VASTU (divine design)
Ia. Sthapati = supervising designer-architect (ShiSHya)
b. SUtragrAhin = master mason-measurer, engineer (ShiSHyaputra) => mason's marks
SHILPA (art of shapes)
II 1. Vardhaki = master stone dresser-joiner
2. TakSHaka = master sculptor (stone cutter-carpenter)
CHITRA (craft of colourful ornamentation)
III. Vishvakarma Shilpa-ShreNi = Vishvakarma craftsmen guilds
i. mAlAkAra (garland maker, gardener), ii. KarmakAra (blacksmith), iii. ShankhakAra (conch shell carver), iv. Kuvindaka (weaver), v. kumbhakAra (potter, dome-builder?), vi. KAMsyakAra (metal worker), vii. SutradhAra (carpenter, leading shrenika), viii. chitrakAra (painter) and ix. SvarNakAra (goldsmith). See: Brahmavaivarta Purana I.x.20-23f. There are 5 primary and 5 secondary Vishvakarma craftsmen guilds.
a. major: 1. karmakAra, 2. kAMsyakAra, 3. svarNakAra, 4. sUtradhara (5. shilpin = stone carvers)
b. minor: 6. mAlAkAra, 7. shankhakAra, 8. kuvindaka, 9. kumbhakAra and 10. chitrakAra
IV. JirNoddhAraNa Shilpa-shreNi (team of repairers)
In the (second half of the) first millennium the role of Sthapati and SUtragrAhin was put in the function of the SUtradhAra.
The mason's engraved signs of their guilds and their personal names on the sones, etc. of the buildings. This tradition is a continuing one from at least the Gupta time to the 17th century, thus covering also the major Mughal period.
Taj Mahal mason marks
A Times of India (Hindi edition, New Delhi), report of 12 july 2004 refers to Archaeological Survey of India classifying mansons' marks of the Taj in three categories, namely, masons' marks alone, masons' marks in combination with names of masons and names of masons alone.
The report speaks of 671 marks found on the 300 meter long enclosing wall of the Taj. Fifty-three names of masons are also found engraved on the wall.
The 288 occurrences attached to 53 names in Nagari, with the overall majority of Hindu names, compared to only 20 in Persian script, underlines that the Taj edifice was heavily in the able hands of tradition Hindu mason guilds (the Muslims in Nagari, may have been newly converted masons, still feeling attached to their ancient Hindu art). And that still upto the 17th century. The masons' marks are to be found amongst older mason works well into Rajput period and before.
That there are only 20 engravings in Persian, indicates the overall role of Indians, the Sthapati-Sutradhara-Shilpi teamwork according to their Shastras in the construction of the edifice. This stresses also that the edifice must have been the ââ¬Åpalace of Raja Mansinghââ¬Â, as mentioned in the Padishahnamas and the royal Farman of Shahjahan, turned into a tomb with minor cosmetic changes (idols and human images removed, added with Persian and Arabic engravings).
Ancient Indian tradition
The ShukranIti (2nd century BC) refers thrice to artisans' distinguishing marks (cihna, lakSHaNa, anka) in prescribing their use to identify artisans and their occupations. The work summarizes a cenuries old and well-developed tradition from the Indus age well into his time.
There are two different classes of engravings:
a. missives (directional or location codes engraved for assembling a building)
b. marks (masons' codes of the different guilds involved in the building)
The marks fall in the following broad groups:
1. flora: flower, garland
2. fauna (animal, human): fish, scorpion, bird, frog, snake, human (single, double)
3. geometrical forms: circles (with a dot, a cross, three vertical lines, a flower, with a loop, or line, etc.), triangles, squares, hexagons or stars, parallellograms and variations.
4. weapons: mace, axe, trident, elephant's goad, bow and arrow, double-edged object, lance-head, arrow heads, arrow heads with a leaf.
5. instruments: weighing balance, damaru.
6. ornamental: lattice.
7. auspicious: fish, conch, svastika, mithuna, cross, flag, cart and wheel, river, hill with a cross or loop and armlet.
8. letters or names: Brahmi
9. numbers
Periods
upto 6th century
In progress....
6th to 13th century
First are the Brahmi marks, then the geometrical ones. Fauna occurs numerously, Flora is yet relatively rare. Weapons and instruments occur also freely.
Geometrical figures, like star and circle, besides fish, goad, arrow head, axe, lattice, svastika, cross and damaru are amongst the most frequent marks.
13th to 17th century
Geometrical figures, like star and circle, besides fish, goad, arrow head, axe, lattice, svastika, cross and damaru are still amongst the most frequent marks.
A few new marks appear in this period, which seems to be evolved out of the earlier ones (circle with loops), sometimes indicating a fusion with another group (svastika with a cross): Signs with loops, like knotted loops, a looped pentagon and a circle with four loops (Agra). But also a svastika with a cross and a circle divided by an -s- inside.
Floral designs are now very frequent, human ones are rare.
This indicates a continuous and consistent indigenous masonry tradition, dealing with complex Hindu structures and simplex Muslim ones, whether religious or secular. The last is nothing more than basically constructing their own traditional secular, domed buildings with towers, with a few new ideas (like qibla niche instead of the ghana niche, iwan instead of mahadvara), adapted to the taste of the Sultans. Most buildings occupied by the Muslims were already constructed by the traditional masons for the Hindus. It had to repaired and adapted to Muslim taste after their destructive drifts towards Hindu edifices.
The mason's marks of the Taj Mahal are discovered on the riverside wall. I have found a link on the web which has information on this. Below is the information, slightly rearranged by me.
http://savebharatmatagroup.blogspot.com/...hnama.html
The riverside wall of Taj Mahal is built of red sandstone and 300m in length and 9.67m in height. Lower part of the wall is plain with veneering of red sandstone slabs, whereas upper part of the wall is adirned with arched panels. The panels are carved with beautiful flowerpot and floral motifs in high relief. The frames of these arches inlayed with marble and upper corner of the panels are embellished with projecting marble lotus medallions. The wall is pierced with two doorways at the eastern and western end towards river.
The plain slabs of the lower sidewall are engraved on the wall viz. mason marks, mason names and composition of both. Mason names are in profusion followed by mason marks and composition of both respectively.
I. Mason marks types
There are some 14 different types:
1. svastika, 2. star, 3. hook like mark, 4a. triangle, b. intersecting triangles, 5. trident, 6a. Fish,
b. three conjoined fish, 7. damaru, 8 flower, 9. circle with s-shaped letter inside, 10. four square, 11. good, 12. arrow head, 13. axe, 14. geometrical flower, etc.
Arranged in the order of frequency: svastika, star, hook like mark, triangle, damaru, flower, intersecting triangles, trident, three conjoined fish, circle with s-shaped letter inside, four square, fish, good, arrow head, axe, geometrical flower etc.
The mason names are mostly written in Nagari character, but there are also some names and/or marks in Persian.
II. Mason names (53 in Nagari)
These are prefixed/suffixed/based/topped with variety of marks like star, svastika, axe etc. Some of the marks are in negative from which may have been taken by impression of it in positive form. Some of the mason names or composition of name with mark are as follows (number of frequency is written in bracket):
A. Nagari ââ¬â 1. Magha (22), 2. Gaga (21), 3. Ramayada (19), 4. Pahuratha (16), 5. Sabala (14), 6. Haridasa (13), 7. Hamhara (12), 8. Bhagavan (11), 9. Ramadasa (10), 10. Nathu (9),
11. Parorama (8), 12. Kasi (8), 13. Mohananvatha (7), 14. Lapra (7), 15. Hara (7), 16. Nagha (5), 17. Satra (5), 18. Kesenavesko (5), 19. Hani (4), 20. Ghanamahasa (4), 21. Ghanamala (4),
22. Hira (4), 23. Mahala (4), 24. Mahan (4), 25. Jahanhalavala (3), 26. Bhagavan (3),
27. Namayavi (3), 28. Nanaghana (3), 29. Kalanu (3), 30. Nahana (3), 31. Bhaga-(3), 32. Jamal (2), 33. Manara (2), 34. Penokomopalu (2), 35. Pagaga (2), 36. Nathanvatha (2), 37. Makalapa (2), 38. Hanu (2), 39. Shamada (2), 40. Nakhanltagari (2), 41. Pala (2), 42. Kamaphala (2),
43. Nathahalavala (2), 44. Ramari (2), 45. Mapahala (2), 46. Kasama-(2) 47. Panamadamah(2), 48. Alama (2), 49. Jaghavalahalu (2), 50. Kalama (2), 51. Bhavara (2), 52. Rovo (2), and last
53. Mohana (2).
SUBTOTAL 275 with Hindu identity and 13 seemingly Muslim in the lower frequency => TOTAL 288
B. Persian - name/numerals in Persian (20)
Total of 20 with a Muslim identity.
III. Detailed survey of the mason marks
There are more than 14 different types which are arranged in the order of frequency:
1. svastika
Svastika mark,
Mason name suffixed with Svastika like mark,
Cross like mark,
2. star
Four pronged star mark,
Five pronged star mark,
Illegible mason name prefixed with five pronged star mark,
Five pronged star mark with illegible mason name,
Six pronged star Mark,
Illegible mason name suffixed with star mark
Mason name suffixed with star mark,
Mason name prefixed with Swastik like mark,
Mason name and star mark,
Mason name prefixed with star mark,
Mason name topped with star mark,
Partial Illeggible six lettered mason name with a star mark at the starting of the base,
3. triangle
a. triangle
Triangular marks,
b. intersecting triangles
Composite Triangular mark,
4. trident
Mason name prefixed with trident like mark,
Trident mark,
Mason name prefixed with trident mark. With the help of impression of the name in positive form,
Mason name with trident like mark perpendicular to the name at the end,
5. Fish
three conjoined fish
Three conjoined fish mark,
6. damaru
Drum like mark,
Damaru like mark,
7. flower
a. Flower like mark with four petals,
b. geometrical flower
8. ball with s-shaped letter inside
a. Ball like mark with shaped mark inside,
b. hook like mark inside
Mason name suffixed with inverted s-shaped mark,
9. four square
Four square mark,
10. good
Good mark,
11. arrow
Mason name with two arrow marks facing each other in between,
12. axe
Mason name prefixed with axe mark,
Mason Mark like blade of battle-axe,
Mason name prefixed with axe mark written with the help of impression in positive,
13. winepot
Mason name with wine-pot like mark at the bottom,
14. miscell.
Mason name,
Name with a mark at the center base,
Mason name with a mark at the center base,
Mason name with mark at the center of the base,
Some letters are illegible,
Mason name, last four letters are illegible
Illegible two letters of Mason name,
Illegible two letters,
Mark,
Name topped with mark,
Mason name suffixed with a mark,
Name suffixed with a mark,
Numeral,
Un-deciphered mason like,
Mason name with Ra letter at the top,
Three mason names at a place,
Digit in Persian? Suffixed with Mason name,
Mason name in Persian with date and some legend
.....to be continued