04-10-2004, 02:58 PM
CHAPTER IX
LESSONS FROM ABROAD
Hindus who will not yield to the demand of the Muslims for the division of India into Pakistan and
Hindustan and would insist upon maintaining the geographical unity of India without counting the
cost will do well to study the fate that has befallen other countries which, like India, harboured
many nations and sought to harmonise them.
It is not necessary to review the history of all such countries. It is enough to recount here the story
of two, Turkey and Czechoslovakia.
I
To begin with Turkey. The emergence of the Turks in history was due to the fact that they were
driven away by the Mongols from their home in Central Asia, somewhere between 1230-40 A.D.,
which led them to settle in north-west Anatolia. Their career as the builders of the Turkish Empire
began in 1326 with the conquest of Brusa. In 1360-61, they conquered Thrace from the Aegean to
the Black Sea; in 1361-62, the Byzantine Government of Constantinople accepted their supremacy.
In 1369 Bulgaria followed suit. In 1371-72 Macedonia was conquered. In 1373 Constantinople
definitely accepted Ottoman sovereignty. In 1389 Servia was conquered, in 1430Salonica, in 1453
Constantinople, in 1461 Trebizond, in 1465Quraman, and in 1475KaffaandTana were annexed.
After a short lull, they conquered Mosul in 1514, Syria, Egypt, the Hiaz and the Yaman in 1516-17
and Belgrade in 1521. This was followed in 1526 by victory over the Hungarians at Mohacz. In
1554 took place the first conquest of Baghdad and in 1639 the second Conquest of Baghdad. Twice
they laid siege to Vienna, first in 1529 and again in 1683 with a view to extend their conquest
beyond. But on both occasions they were repulsed with the result that their expansion in Europe
was completely checked forever.
Still the countries they conquered between 1326 and 1683 formed a vast empire. A few of these
territories the Turks had lost to their enemies thereafter, but taking the extent of the Turkish Empire
as it stood in 1789 on the eve of the French Revolution, it comprised (1) the Balkans, south of the
Danube, (2) Asia Minor, the Levant and the neighbouring islands (i.e., Cyprus), (3)Syria and
Palestine, (4) Egypt, and (5) North Africa from Egypt to Morocco.
The tale of the disruption of the Turkish Empire is easily told. The first to break away de facto, if
not de jure, was Egypt in 1769. The next were the Christians in the Balkans. Bessarabia was taken
by Russia in 1812 after a war with Turkey. In 1812 Serbia rebelled with the aid of Russia and the
Turks were obliged to place Serbia under a separate government. In 1829 similar concessions were
granted to two other Danubian provinces, Moldavia and Wallachia. As a result of the Greek war of
independence which lasted between 1822-29, Greece was completely freed from the Turkish rule
and the Greek independence was recognised by the Powers in 1832. Between 1875-77 there was
turmoil amongst the Balkans. There was a revolt in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bulgarians
resorted to atrocities against the Turks, to which the Turks replied with atrocities in equal measure.
As a result, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey and so did Russia. By the Treaty of
Berlin, Bulgaria .was given self-government under Turkey and Eastern Rumania was to be ruled by
Turkey under a Christian Governor. Russia gained Kars and Batourn. Dobrudja was given to
Rumania. Bosnia and Herzegovina were assigned to Austria for administration and England
occupied Cyprus.In 1881 Greece gained Thessaly and France occupied Tunis. In 1885 Bulgaria and
Eastern Rumania were united into one state.
The story of the growth and decline of the Turkish Empire upto 1906 has been very graphically
described by Mr. Lane Poole in the following words 44[f.44] :â
"In its old extent, when the Porte ruled not merely the narrow territory now called Turkey in
Europe, but Greece, Bulgaria and Eastern Rumania, Rumania, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
with the Crimea and a portion of Southern Russia, Egypt, Syria, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers and
numerous islands in the Mediterranean, not counting the vast but mainly desert tract of Arabia, the
total population (at the present time) would be over fifty millions, or nearly twice that of Europe
without Russia. One by one her provinces have been taken away. Algiers and Tunis have been
incorporated with France, and this 175,000 square miles and five million inhabitants have
transferred their allegiance. Egypt is practically independent, and this means a loss of 500,000
miles and over six millions of inhabitants. Asiatic Turkey alone has suffered comparatively little
diminution. This forms the bulk of tier present dominions, and comprises about 680,000 square
miles, and over sixteen millions of population. In Europe her losses have been almost as severe as
in Africa where Tripoli alone remains to her. Serbia and Bosnia are administered by Austria and
thereby nearly 40,000 miles and three and a half millions of peoples have become Austrian
subjects. Wallachia and Moldavia are united in the independent kingdom of Rumania, diminishing
the extent of Turkey by 46,000 miles and over five millions of inhabitants. Bulgaria is a dependent
stale over which the Ports has no real control and Eastern Rumania has lately de facto become part
of Bulgaria and the two contain nearly 40,000 square miles, and three millions of inhabitants. The
kingdom of Greece with its 25,000 miles and two million population has long been separated from
its parent In Europe where the Turkish territory once extended to 230,000 miles, with a population
of nearly 20 millions, it now reaches only the total of 66 thousand miles and a population of four
and a half millions. It has lost nearly three-fourths of its land, and about the same proportion of its
people."
Such was the condition of Turkey in 1907. What has befallen her since then is unfortunately the
worst part of her story. In 1908 taking advantage of the revolution brought about by the Young
Turks, Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria declared her independence. In 1911
Italy took possession of Tripoli and in 1912 France occupied Morocco. Encouraged by the
successful attack of Italy in 1912, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro formed themselves into
a Balkan League and declared war on Turkey. In this war, known as the first Balkan War, Turkey
was completely defeated. By the Treaty of London(1913) the Turkish territory in Europe was
reduced to a narrow strip round Constantinople. But the treaty could not take effect because the
victors could not agree on the distribution of the spoils of victory. In 1913 Bulgaria declared war on
the rest of the Balkan League and Rumania declared war on Bulgaria in the hope of extending her
territory. Turkey also did the same. By the Treaty of Bukharest (1913), which ended the second
Balkan War, Turkey recovered Adrianople and got Thrace from Bulgaria. Serbia obtained Northern
Macedonia and Greece obtained Southern Macedonia (including Salonika), while Montenegro
enlarged her territory at the expense of Turkey. By 1914 when the Great European War came on,
the Balkans had won their independence from Turkey and the area in Europe that remained under
the Turkish Empire was indeed a very small area round about Constantinople and her possessions
in Asia. So far as the African continent is concerned, the Sultanas power over Egypt and the rest of
North Africa was only nominal, for the European Powers had established real control therein. In the
Great War of 1914 the overthrow of Turkey was complete. All the provinces from the
Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf were overrun, and the great cities of Baghdad, Jerusalem,
Damascus and Alleppo were captured. In Europe the allied troops occupied Constantinople. The
Treaty of Sevres, which brought the war with Turkey to a close, sought to deprive her of all
her outlying provinces and even of the fertile plains of Asia Minor. Greek claim for territory was
generously allowed at the expense of Turkey in Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor and Italy was
to receive Adalia and a large tract in the South. Turkey was to be deprived of all her Arab provinces
in Asia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Hedjaz and Nejd. There was left to Turkey only the capital,
Constantinople, and separated from this city, by a " neutral zone of the straits," part of the barren
plateau of Anatolia. The treaty though accepted by the Sultan was fiercely attacked by the
Nationalist Party under Kemal Pasha. When the Greeks advanced to occupy their new territory,
they were attacked and decisively beaten. At the end of the war with Greece, which went on from
1920 to 1922, the Turks had reoccupied Smyrna. As the allies were not prepared to send armies to
help the Greeks, they were forced to come to terms with the Nationalist Turks. At the conference at
Mudiania the Greeks agreed to revise the terms of the Treaty of Sevres, which was done by the
Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 which granted the demands of Turkey except in Western Thrace. The
rest of the Treaty of Sevres was accepted by the Turks which meant the loss of her Arab provinces
in Asia. Before the War of 1914, Turkey had lost all her provinces in Europe. After the War, she
lost her provinces in Asia. As a result of the dismemberment of the old Turkish Empire, what now
remains of it is the small state called the Republic of Turkey with an area which is a minute fraction
of the old Empire 45[f.45] .
LESSONS FROM ABROAD
Hindus who will not yield to the demand of the Muslims for the division of India into Pakistan and
Hindustan and would insist upon maintaining the geographical unity of India without counting the
cost will do well to study the fate that has befallen other countries which, like India, harboured
many nations and sought to harmonise them.
It is not necessary to review the history of all such countries. It is enough to recount here the story
of two, Turkey and Czechoslovakia.
I
To begin with Turkey. The emergence of the Turks in history was due to the fact that they were
driven away by the Mongols from their home in Central Asia, somewhere between 1230-40 A.D.,
which led them to settle in north-west Anatolia. Their career as the builders of the Turkish Empire
began in 1326 with the conquest of Brusa. In 1360-61, they conquered Thrace from the Aegean to
the Black Sea; in 1361-62, the Byzantine Government of Constantinople accepted their supremacy.
In 1369 Bulgaria followed suit. In 1371-72 Macedonia was conquered. In 1373 Constantinople
definitely accepted Ottoman sovereignty. In 1389 Servia was conquered, in 1430Salonica, in 1453
Constantinople, in 1461 Trebizond, in 1465Quraman, and in 1475KaffaandTana were annexed.
After a short lull, they conquered Mosul in 1514, Syria, Egypt, the Hiaz and the Yaman in 1516-17
and Belgrade in 1521. This was followed in 1526 by victory over the Hungarians at Mohacz. In
1554 took place the first conquest of Baghdad and in 1639 the second Conquest of Baghdad. Twice
they laid siege to Vienna, first in 1529 and again in 1683 with a view to extend their conquest
beyond. But on both occasions they were repulsed with the result that their expansion in Europe
was completely checked forever.
Still the countries they conquered between 1326 and 1683 formed a vast empire. A few of these
territories the Turks had lost to their enemies thereafter, but taking the extent of the Turkish Empire
as it stood in 1789 on the eve of the French Revolution, it comprised (1) the Balkans, south of the
Danube, (2) Asia Minor, the Levant and the neighbouring islands (i.e., Cyprus), (3)Syria and
Palestine, (4) Egypt, and (5) North Africa from Egypt to Morocco.
The tale of the disruption of the Turkish Empire is easily told. The first to break away de facto, if
not de jure, was Egypt in 1769. The next were the Christians in the Balkans. Bessarabia was taken
by Russia in 1812 after a war with Turkey. In 1812 Serbia rebelled with the aid of Russia and the
Turks were obliged to place Serbia under a separate government. In 1829 similar concessions were
granted to two other Danubian provinces, Moldavia and Wallachia. As a result of the Greek war of
independence which lasted between 1822-29, Greece was completely freed from the Turkish rule
and the Greek independence was recognised by the Powers in 1832. Between 1875-77 there was
turmoil amongst the Balkans. There was a revolt in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bulgarians
resorted to atrocities against the Turks, to which the Turks replied with atrocities in equal measure.
As a result, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey and so did Russia. By the Treaty of
Berlin, Bulgaria .was given self-government under Turkey and Eastern Rumania was to be ruled by
Turkey under a Christian Governor. Russia gained Kars and Batourn. Dobrudja was given to
Rumania. Bosnia and Herzegovina were assigned to Austria for administration and England
occupied Cyprus.In 1881 Greece gained Thessaly and France occupied Tunis. In 1885 Bulgaria and
Eastern Rumania were united into one state.
The story of the growth and decline of the Turkish Empire upto 1906 has been very graphically
described by Mr. Lane Poole in the following words 44[f.44] :â
"In its old extent, when the Porte ruled not merely the narrow territory now called Turkey in
Europe, but Greece, Bulgaria and Eastern Rumania, Rumania, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
with the Crimea and a portion of Southern Russia, Egypt, Syria, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers and
numerous islands in the Mediterranean, not counting the vast but mainly desert tract of Arabia, the
total population (at the present time) would be over fifty millions, or nearly twice that of Europe
without Russia. One by one her provinces have been taken away. Algiers and Tunis have been
incorporated with France, and this 175,000 square miles and five million inhabitants have
transferred their allegiance. Egypt is practically independent, and this means a loss of 500,000
miles and over six millions of inhabitants. Asiatic Turkey alone has suffered comparatively little
diminution. This forms the bulk of tier present dominions, and comprises about 680,000 square
miles, and over sixteen millions of population. In Europe her losses have been almost as severe as
in Africa where Tripoli alone remains to her. Serbia and Bosnia are administered by Austria and
thereby nearly 40,000 miles and three and a half millions of peoples have become Austrian
subjects. Wallachia and Moldavia are united in the independent kingdom of Rumania, diminishing
the extent of Turkey by 46,000 miles and over five millions of inhabitants. Bulgaria is a dependent
stale over which the Ports has no real control and Eastern Rumania has lately de facto become part
of Bulgaria and the two contain nearly 40,000 square miles, and three millions of inhabitants. The
kingdom of Greece with its 25,000 miles and two million population has long been separated from
its parent In Europe where the Turkish territory once extended to 230,000 miles, with a population
of nearly 20 millions, it now reaches only the total of 66 thousand miles and a population of four
and a half millions. It has lost nearly three-fourths of its land, and about the same proportion of its
people."
Such was the condition of Turkey in 1907. What has befallen her since then is unfortunately the
worst part of her story. In 1908 taking advantage of the revolution brought about by the Young
Turks, Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria declared her independence. In 1911
Italy took possession of Tripoli and in 1912 France occupied Morocco. Encouraged by the
successful attack of Italy in 1912, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro formed themselves into
a Balkan League and declared war on Turkey. In this war, known as the first Balkan War, Turkey
was completely defeated. By the Treaty of London(1913) the Turkish territory in Europe was
reduced to a narrow strip round Constantinople. But the treaty could not take effect because the
victors could not agree on the distribution of the spoils of victory. In 1913 Bulgaria declared war on
the rest of the Balkan League and Rumania declared war on Bulgaria in the hope of extending her
territory. Turkey also did the same. By the Treaty of Bukharest (1913), which ended the second
Balkan War, Turkey recovered Adrianople and got Thrace from Bulgaria. Serbia obtained Northern
Macedonia and Greece obtained Southern Macedonia (including Salonika), while Montenegro
enlarged her territory at the expense of Turkey. By 1914 when the Great European War came on,
the Balkans had won their independence from Turkey and the area in Europe that remained under
the Turkish Empire was indeed a very small area round about Constantinople and her possessions
in Asia. So far as the African continent is concerned, the Sultanas power over Egypt and the rest of
North Africa was only nominal, for the European Powers had established real control therein. In the
Great War of 1914 the overthrow of Turkey was complete. All the provinces from the
Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf were overrun, and the great cities of Baghdad, Jerusalem,
Damascus and Alleppo were captured. In Europe the allied troops occupied Constantinople. The
Treaty of Sevres, which brought the war with Turkey to a close, sought to deprive her of all
her outlying provinces and even of the fertile plains of Asia Minor. Greek claim for territory was
generously allowed at the expense of Turkey in Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor and Italy was
to receive Adalia and a large tract in the South. Turkey was to be deprived of all her Arab provinces
in Asia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Hedjaz and Nejd. There was left to Turkey only the capital,
Constantinople, and separated from this city, by a " neutral zone of the straits," part of the barren
plateau of Anatolia. The treaty though accepted by the Sultan was fiercely attacked by the
Nationalist Party under Kemal Pasha. When the Greeks advanced to occupy their new territory,
they were attacked and decisively beaten. At the end of the war with Greece, which went on from
1920 to 1922, the Turks had reoccupied Smyrna. As the allies were not prepared to send armies to
help the Greeks, they were forced to come to terms with the Nationalist Turks. At the conference at
Mudiania the Greeks agreed to revise the terms of the Treaty of Sevres, which was done by the
Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 which granted the demands of Turkey except in Western Thrace. The
rest of the Treaty of Sevres was accepted by the Turks which meant the loss of her Arab provinces
in Asia. Before the War of 1914, Turkey had lost all her provinces in Europe. After the War, she
lost her provinces in Asia. As a result of the dismemberment of the old Turkish Empire, what now
remains of it is the small state called the Republic of Turkey with an area which is a minute fraction
of the old Empire 45[f.45] .